Corruption and anti-corruption within the research sector and university system in Bolivia

Higher education is a sensitive sector for corruption as it involves a substantial amount of resources and high degrees of discretion. In particular, Bolivia dedicates around 17% of its annual budget, more than most Latin American Countries, to this sub-sector. The specific areas of corruption risks in higher education are: i) accreditation and quality control; ii) administration; iii) recruitment and admission; iv) academic integrity. Bribery, embezzlement, misappropriation/fraud, trading in influence, abuse of power/influence, collusion, patronage, nepotism, clientelism, and conflict of interest are the most common types of corruption occurring in the higher education sector. The following specific measures are proposed to decrease the risk of corruption in the higher education sector: control and sanctions; whistle-blower protection; ranking and accreditation; ethical code / code of conduct; promotion of academic integrity; monitoring of universities expenditure.