The rector of the Moscow State University of Culture and the Arts is alleged to have handed out 130 "false" law degrees between 2001 and 2004 in exchange for bribes worth RUR300,000. Estimates of how much students pay teachers and academics in bribes every year range from RUR250m to RUR300m.

It is claimed that a "slow corruption" is being installed as universities are struggling for funds. Degrees are for sale and in one university a professor at a former polytechnic was found to have ordered his staff to "minimise" the number of failing students by marking up those at risk of failing because there has been a drop in applications.

A majority of students believe that there is a lot of corruption at the University of Banja Luka, according to a study by Transparency International.

Police officers have collected "much new evidence" in the case of an alleged exam-selling ring at Rome's La Sapienza University, the largest university in Europe, the local newspaper Il Messagero reported last week. According to police officers, students paid fees ranging from $1,695 to $ 3,391, depending on the degree of difficulty, to receive oral-exam questions in advance from the faculty member who would test them.

Admissions, courses, grades and diplomas are for sale in high profile higher institutions. Admissions officers offer expensive private lessons. Reforms should include an accreditation system, an entrance exam and an increase in financing.

Reported instances of bribery and corruption increased sharply last year on campuses throughout Russian Federation. More than 1,000 incidents of bribe-taking and related abuses by administrators and professors were confirmed in 2001, an increase of 32 percent over the 2000 levels.

Plans for a national body to tackle research fraud have been published by doctors and scientists concerned that foul play is undermining the good name of science. The Committee on Publication Ethics (Cope) agreed at a meeting in October that concerted action was needed.